Browse public phenotypes.

Hippocampal volume measures the size of the hippocampus, a brain region crucial for memory formation, spatial navigation, and emotional regulation. Research shows that variations near genes involved in neurodevelopment and synaptic plasticity (like BDNF, APOE, and SORL1) can influence differences in hippocampal size. Hippocampal volume varies across individuals and can decline with age or disease; heritability estimates range from 40–70%, highlighting a significant genetic contribution to its structure.

Household income measures the total earnings of all members living in a household—reflecting economic resources available for living expenses, education, and healthcare. Research shows that variations near genes involved in cognitive function, risk tolerance, and social behavior (such as FOXP2, DRD4, and MAOA) can influence differences in socioeconomic outcomes, including income. Household income varies widely across populations and is shaped by complex social, environmental, and genetic factors, with heritability estimates generally around 30–50%, underscoring the interplay between genes and environment in economic status.

Information processing speed measures how quickly your brain can absorb, interpret, and respond to information—impacting everything from reaction times to complex decision-making. Research shows that variations near genes involved in neural transmission and cognitive function (such as COMT, BDNF, and DTNBP1) can influence individual differences in processing speed. Processing speed varies widely among individuals, with heritability estimates ranging from 40–60%, highlighting a substantial genetic contribution alongside environmental influences like education and health.

Language measurement captures your ability to understand, produce, and use language—core skills that enable communication, learning, and social interaction. Research shows that variations near genes involved in brain development and speech processing (like FOXP2, CNTNAP2, and KIAA0319) can influence individual differences in language ability. Language skills vary widely across individuals, with heritability estimates ranging from 40–60%, reflecting both genetic and environmental contributions such as education and exposure.

Lean body mass is the weight of your body minus fat—comprising muscles, bones, organs, and fluids—that supports movement, metabolism, and overall strength. Research shows that variations near genes involved in muscle growth and metabolism (like MSTN, IGF1, and PPARGC1A) can influence individual differences in lean mass. Lean body mass varies widely among individuals, with heritability estimates around 60–70%, highlighting a strong genetic role in determining your body’s muscular and structural composition.

Motion sickness is the discomfort or nausea triggered by conflicting signals between your inner ear, eyes, and body during movement—commonly experienced in cars, boats, or planes. Research shows that variations near genes involved in vestibular function and neural signaling (like CTNNA2, CHRNA3, and GABRB3) can influence susceptibility to motion sickness. Motion sickness affects about 20–30% of the population to varying degrees, with heritability estimates around 50%, highlighting a significant genetic contribution alongside environmental triggers.

Reading and spelling ability measures your skill in recognizing written words and accurately producing their written forms—key components of literacy development. Research shows that variations near genes involved in language processing and neural development (such as DCDC2, KIAA0319, and FOXP2) can influence individual differences in reading and spelling proficiency. These abilities vary widely across individuals, with heritability estimates around 40–60%, reflecting a meaningful genetic contribution alongside environmental factors like education and literacy exposure.

Response to reward measures how strongly an individual’s brain reacts to positive stimuli—shaping motivation, pleasure, and reinforcement learning. Research shows that variations near genes involved in dopamine signaling and reward pathways (such as DRD2, DAT1, and COMT) can influence differences in reward sensitivity. Response to reward varies across individuals, with heritability estimates around 40–60%, highlighting a significant genetic contribution alongside environmental and psychological factors.

Restless Legs Syndrome (RLS) is a neurological condition characterized by an uncontrollable urge to move the legs, often accompanied by uncomfortable sensations, especially during periods of rest or at night. Research shows that variations near genes involved in dopamine signaling and iron metabolism (like MEIS1, BTBD9, and PPT2) can increase susceptibility to RLS. RLS affects about 5–10% of the population, with heritability estimates around 50–60%, highlighting a strong genetic component alongside environmental factors.

Sex interaction measurement captures how biological sex influences the effect of genetic variants on traits or diseases—highlighting differences in genetic impact between males and females. Research shows that certain gene-trait associations vary depending on sex, with genes involved in hormone regulation (like ESR1 and AR) often playing key roles in these interactions. Sex-specific genetic effects are observed across many traits and conditions, emphasizing the importance of considering sex as a biological variable in genetic studies.

Sexual activity is deeply personal, yet it’s shaped by more than just individual choice. Culture, relationships, stress levels, and even circadian rhythm can influence our sexual behaviors. While society often treats sexuality as purely psychological or social, research reveals that biology also plays a measurable role in shaping our sexual patterns. Genetically, sexual behavior has been associated with loci near genes such as CADM2, MSRA, and SIM1, which are involved in risk-taking, neurodevelopment, and hypothalamic regulation. Estimates from twin studies suggest heritability of sexual behavior traits ranges between 30% and 50%, with SNP-based heritability of age at first sex and number of sexual partners ranging from 10% to 25% depending on the population.

Sleep duration isn’t just about how long we stay in bed—it reflects how effectively our brain and body restore themselves. Some people thrive on six hours, others need nine, but across the spectrum, consistent and sufficient sleep is one of the best tools for mental sharpness, emotional balance, and physical health. Like appetite or energy levels, it varies person to person but tells a powerful story over time. Genetic influences on sleep duration involve genes such as ABCC9, PER2, and DEC2, which affect circadian regulation and sleep homeostasis. Population studies show that the average adult sleep duration is around 7–8 hours per night. Heritability for sleep duration ranges from 30% to 45%, with both common and rare variants contributing to individual differences in how much sleep the body naturally needs.

Sleep quality quietly shapes every corner of our lives—from our mood and memory to our immune system and longevity. When it’s good, we barely notice; when it’s poor, everything feels harder. In a world full of stimulation and stress, sleep is our most natural reset button, and yet often the first thing we sacrifice. Genetically, sleep quality is influenced by variants in genes such as MEIS1, PAX8, and ARNTL, which are involved in circadian rhythm regulation, neural activity, and sleep-wake transitions. Around 30–40% of adults report occasional sleep problems, with about 10–15% experiencing chronic insomnia. Heritability estimates for subjective sleep quality range from 30% to 50%, suggesting both genetic influence and a strong role for lifestyle and environmental factors.

Smoking behavior often begins as a choice, but quickly becomes a deeply ingrained habit shaped by biology, environment, and psychology. What starts as curiosity or coping can evolve into dependence, despite clear risks. Understanding the roots of smoking helps us move beyond judgment and toward effective support and prevention. Genetically, smoking behavior is associated with variants in the CHRNA5-A3-B4 gene cluster on chromosome 15, which influences nicotine dependence and smoking quantity by affecting nicotinic acetylcholine receptor sensitivity. Prevalence varies widely by region and gender, with global adult smoking rates around 22% for men and 7% for women. Heritability estimates for smoking initiation and nicotine dependence are typically between 40–70%, underscoring the strong genetic contribution to this behavioral trait.

Social communication impairment can make navigating everyday conversations feel like solving a puzzle without all the pieces. It affects the ability to interpret tone, gestures, or social cues, leading to challenges in building relationships and expressing oneself clearly. For many, these difficulties are lifelong but manageable with awareness and support. Genetically, this trait is influenced by variants near genes involved in brain development and synaptic function, such as CNTNAP2, FOXP2, and others associated with neurodevelopmental pathways. The trait is more commonly studied in the context of autism spectrum conditions, where prevalence is estimated at 1–2% in the general population. Heritability is high—often reported above 60%—reflecting a strong genetic contribution.

Social inhibition quality reflects how comfortably and confidently an individual interacts in social situations—ranging from shy restraint to outgoing ease. It shapes relationships, communication, and how people navigate the world around them, influencing both personal and professional lives. Genetic variations near genes involved in neurotransmission and emotional regulation (such as COMT, SLC6A4, and DRD4) contribute to differences in social inhibition among individuals. Social inhibition varies widely, with heritability estimates around 30–50%, highlighting the combined influence of genetics and environment, including upbringing and social experiences.

Suntan is your skin’s natural response to sunlight—a protective bronze glow signaling increased melanin production to shield against ultraviolet rays. It’s a visible mark of your body adapting to the environment, reflecting both your heritage and lifestyle under the sun. While a tan may feel like a badge of summer, it’s also a reminder to balance enjoyment with skin health. Genetic variations near genes such as MC1R, SLC45A2, and TYR influence how your skin responds to sun exposure, determining how easily and deeply you tan. The ability to tan varies widely across populations, with heritability estimates around 60–80%, highlighting a strong genetic basis combined with factors like sun exposure habits and skin care.

Tea isn’t just a drink—it’s a ritual, a pause, a cultural symbol, and for many, a deeply ingrained part of daily life. From calming herbal blends to energizing black teas, people turn to it for comfort, focus, and connection. But our desire (or indifference) toward tea isn't only shaped by habit or culture—there’s a biological layer too. Some of us are simply wired to crave it more than others. Genetic variants influencing tea consumption often affect bitter taste receptors, particularly within genes like TAS2R38 and caffeine metabolism genes such as CYP1A2, which impact both taste perception and how quickly caffeine is processed. In European cohorts, approximately 40–60% of people report regular tea consumption. Twin studies estimate heritability for tea intake at about 30–50%, with clear gene-environment interactions shaped by culture and exposure.

Breathing is the most instinctive thing we do—automatic, essential, often unnoticed until it’s challenged. Vital capacity, the maximum amount of air a person can exhale after a full inhalation, is a window into how well our lungs and muscles are working together. Whether you're an athlete chasing performance or someone managing respiratory health, this measurement quietly says a lot about your body's efficiency and resilience. Genetically, vital capacity is influenced by variants near genes like HHIP, FAM13A, and CHRNA3/5, which affect lung development, airway remodeling, and overall pulmonary function. Vital capacity varies with age, sex, height, and ethnicity, but on average, adult males have values around 4.8 liters and females around 3.1 liters. Heritability estimates range from 40–60%, indicating a strong genetic contribution alongside environmental influences like smoking, pollution, and physical activity.

Waist-hip ratio measures the proportion between your waist and hips—a simple number that offers insights into body shape and fat distribution, both important for overall health. It’s more than just appearance; this ratio relates to risks for conditions like heart disease and diabetes, reminding us that how fat is stored matters as much as how much there is. Genetic variations near genes involved in fat storage and metabolism (such as LYPLAL1, RSPO3, and VEGFA) influence individual differences in waist-hip ratio. Waist-hip ratio varies across individuals and populations, with heritability estimates ranging from 40% to 60%, reflecting a meaningful genetic influence alongside lifestyle factors like diet and physical activity.

Word reading measures your ability to recognize and understand written words—a foundational skill that opens doors to learning, communication, and imagination. It’s a building block of literacy that shapes education and everyday life, influencing how you connect with the world through text. Genetic variants near genes involved in language processing and neural development (such as DCDC2, KIAA0319, and FOXP2) contribute to differences in word reading ability among individuals. Word reading skills vary widely, with heritability estimates around 40–60%, highlighting a strong genetic component combined with environmental factors like education quality and reading exposure.

Worry measurement captures how often and intensely individuals experience persistent concern or anxious thoughts—those mental loops that can weigh heavily on daily life. While a certain level of worry can help us prepare and stay alert, excessive worry may interfere with well-being and decision-making. Genetic variations near genes involved in stress response and emotional regulation (such as CRHR1, SLC6A4, and BDNF) influence individual differences in worry tendencies. Worry levels vary widely across people, with heritability estimates around 30–50%, reflecting a combination of genetic predisposition and environmental influences like life stressors and coping skills.

Menopause marks a profound biological transition in a woman’s life—often signifying both an ending and a beginning. Though frequently framed as a source of loss, this phase can also usher in clarity, autonomy, and freedom from certain social or physiological burdens. While the age at which it begins varies, it tends to carry immense weight—medically, emotionally, and symbolically. That variation isn’t just random; it’s tightly bound to the instructions written in one’s DNA. Age at natural menopause is influenced by numerous common genetic variants, many of which regulate DNA repair mechanisms, ovarian follicle depletion, and hormonal signaling—particularly through genes like MCM8, BRSK1, POLG, and FSHB. The average age of menopause is around 51 years in European populations, with a heritability estimate between 30% and 85%, depending on the cohort and methodology.

Aggressive behavior is a complex human trait that reflects how we respond to frustration, threats, or competition. While occasional assertiveness can be healthy and protective, unchecked aggression may disrupt relationships and wellbeing. Understanding its roots helps us recognize the balance between biology and choice in managing emotions and actions. Genetic factors influencing aggressive behavior include variations near genes involved in neurotransmission and hormone regulation, such as MAOA, COMT, and SLC6A4, which affect serotonin and dopamine pathways. Aggressive tendencies vary widely, with heritability estimates ranging from 40% to 60%, highlighting the interplay between genetic predisposition and environmental influences like upbringing and social context.

Aging rate reflects how quickly our bodies and minds experience the passage of time—beyond just the number of years lived. While some age gracefully with vitality, others face earlier declines in strength, cognition, and resilience. Understanding what influences aging speed offers hope for healthier, longer lives by targeting the biological clocks ticking within us all. Genetic variations in pathways related to DNA repair, cellular senescence, and metabolism—such as genes WRN, TERT, and SIRT1—play important roles in determining individual differences in aging rate. Aging rate varies widely, with heritability estimates generally between 20% and 50%, reflecting a mix of genetic factors and lifestyle influences like diet, exercise, and environmental exposures.

Cigarettes per day measurement quantifies how many cigarettes an individual smokes daily—a key indicator of nicotine dependence and smoking behavior intensity. Research shows that variations near genes involved in nicotine metabolism and neural reward pathways (like CHRNA5, CYP2A6, and DRD2) can influence how much a person smokes. Among smokers, average consumption varies widely, with heritability estimates for cigarettes per day around 40–60%, underscoring a significant genetic influence on smoking intensity.

Diastolic blood pressure measures the pressure in your arteries when your heart rests between beats—an important indicator of cardiovascular health and blood vessel resistance. Research shows that variations near genes regulating vascular tone and kidney function (like NOS3, ATP2B1, and CYP17A1) can influence individual differences in diastolic blood pressure. Normal diastolic pressure typically ranges from 60 to 80 mmHg, and heritability estimates range from 30–50%, underscoring both genetic and environmental contributions to blood pressure regulation.

Drug use measurement captures patterns of consuming psychoactive substances—from occasional use to habitual intake—reflecting complex interactions between biology, environment, and behavior. Research shows that variations near genes involved in reward processing, metabolism, and impulse control (such as DRD2, CYP2D6, and OPRM1) can influence susceptibility to drug use and dependence. Prevalence of drug use varies widely by substance and population, with heritability estimates for general substance use behaviors ranging from 40–60%, highlighting a substantial genetic contribution alongside environmental factors.

Protein measurement captures the levels of various proteins circulating in your blood, which play critical roles in immune defense, tissue repair, and overall metabolic function. Research shows that variations near genes regulating protein synthesis and immune response (such as ALB, SERPINA1, and C3) can influence individual differences in blood protein levels. Protein concentrations vary among individuals and health states, with heritability estimates around 40–60%, highlighting a significant genetic contribution alongside environmental and physiological factors.

Seasonal allergic rhinitis, commonly known as hay fever, is an allergic reaction causing sneezing, nasal congestion, and itchy eyes in response to seasonal pollen exposure. Research shows that variations near genes involved in immune response and inflammation (such as IL13, HLA-DQ, and FCER1A) can influence susceptibility to seasonal allergic rhinitis. This condition affects up to 20% of the population during peak pollen seasons, with heritability estimates around 40–60%, highlighting a significant genetic contribution alongside environmental triggers.